The lost generation was a term coined in the aftermath of World War I to describe a group of literary poets who were demoralized and withdrawn from the world as a result of the grueling hardships of war. Major technological advances in military techniques resulted in more efficient killing methods, mustard gas and trench warfare being two of the most prominent. The prolonged exposure to war and its unfortunate consequences warped the minds of sound men and exposed them to horrors unknown to those concealed from the actual fighting. After the men returned home, many were unable to return to normal jobs, unable to adapt to society's expectations, and often withdrew from the world. These men were termed the "lost generation."
Article About World War I Poetry
World War I produced a vast response in the poetic world, particularly amoung fellow soldiers on the battlefield. Racked with the monotonous gore of typical warfare, stereotypical soldiers took to releasing pent up exasperation, desperation, and depression through poems in an attempt to describe their conflicted emotions and experiences. The events and fighting tactics of World War I make it one of the most violent clashes in the modern world. Mustard gas, trench warfare, and other barbaric techniques scarred the fighters for lifetimes. These poets had various approaches to war in their poems. While some preferred abstract ideas and descriptions, others relived events in vivid detail. Some poems focused on the religious aspect and others pointedly remarked on political and social conditions leading up to and during the war. However, one common occurrence arises between all war poetry, especially those written in the 1900s: the timeworn battle between two conflicting perspectives, is war necessary or not?
Poem
In Flanders Fields
by: Lieutenant Colonel John McCrae, MD
In Flanders Fields the poppies blow Between the crosses row on row, That mark our place; and in the sky The larks, still bravely singing, fly Scarce heard amid the guns below.
We are the Dead. Short days ago We lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow, Loved and were loved, and now we lie In Flanders fields.
Take up our quarrel with the foe: To you from failing hands we throw The torch; be yours to hold it high. If ye break faith with us who die We shall not sleep, though poppies grow In Flanders fields.
Lost Generation Lost generation is the term is used for the period from the end of World War I to the beginning of the Great Depression, though in the United States it is used for the generation of young people who came of age during and shortly after World War I, alternatively known as the World War I generation. “Perhaps the best way to understand The Lost Generation is to consider it neither as a mere "name" nor as a mere thing for which a name "stands," but rather as a minor "discursive object.”” (Dolan) It “was comprised mostly of American writers and artists living abroad, who established their reputations in the period between 1920 and 1930.” (“Writers”) And the famous poets from this era are “Hart Crane”, “e. e. cummings”, “H.D.”, “Archibald MacLeish”, and “Ezra Pound”. (“Writers”) Work Cited: Dolan, Marc. "'The Lost Generation' and 'Modern Life': Myth and Discourse for an American 1920s." Modern Lives: A Cultural Re-Reading of "The Lost Generation,". West Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press, 1996. 9-47. Rpt. in Twentieth-Century Literary Criticism. Ed. Thomas J. Schoenberg and Lawrence J. Trudeau. Vol. 178. Detroit: Gale, 2006. Literature Resource Center. Web. 2 Apr. 2012. "Writers of the Lost Generation." Twentieth-Century Literary Criticism. Ed. Thomas J. Schoenberg and Lawrence J. Trudeau. Vol. 178. Detroit: Gale, 2006. Literature Resource Center. Web. 2 Apr. 2012.
Poem: r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r by E. E. Cummings
r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r who a)s w(e loo)k upnowgath PPEGORHRASS eringint(o- aThe):l eA !p: S a (r rIvInG .gRrEaPsPhOs) to rea(be)rran(com)gi(e)ngly ,grasshopper; Poetry Citation: Cummings, E.E."R-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r." Poets.org. Academy of American Poets. Web. 2 Apr. 2012.
Critical Article about E.E. Cummings Title: E. E. Cummings: Overview Author: Paul Christensen Edward Estlin Cummings, also known as e.e. cummings, is “a major poet of the modern period” (Christensen), who grew up in a comfortable, liberal household in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The distinguished psychologist and writer William James, was his neighbor. Cummings went to Harvard and he “wrote and published poems in the undergraduate reviews, but most of them were conventional and uninspired” (Christensen) He submitted his book of poems to Boni, but was refused. The first book contained 152 poems ranging “from a long, rambling epithalamion and other derivative exercises to short, pithy works of explosive energy and significant innovation.” (Christensen) Even Cummings's later books do not have the vigor of this first work. Among the poems in the collection are "All in green went my love riding," "In Just," "O sweet spontaneous," and "Buffalo Bill's / defunct." He attacked the conventional lyric, innovated in other forms and media. And he made a huge success on shape poem and the punctuations.
The literary period known as the Harlem Renaissance produced a substantial amount of African American poets. This cultural movement came alive in the 1920s and 1930s. When the Harlem Renaissance first came about, it was widely known as the “New Negro Movement.” This was centered in Harlem, New York, but the Harlem Renaissance influenced many French-speaking black poets from African and Caribbean colonies. Although this era spanned from the 20s-30s, the idea still remains today.
I am the darker brother. They send me to eat in the kitchen When company comes, But I laugh, And eat well, And grow strong.
Tomorrow, I’ll be at the table When company comes. Nobody’ll dare Say to me, “Eat in the kitchen,” Then.
Besides, They’ll see how beautiful I am And be ashamed—
I, too, am America.
WORKS CITED
"I, Too by Langston Hughes." PoemHunter.Com - Thousands of poems and poets. Poetry Search Engine. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Apr. 2012. <http://www.poemhunter.com/poem/i-too/>.
Summary of Critical Article on Poet
Langston Hughes is a well-recognized poet from the Harlem Renaissance era. Since he began writing poems as a rather young man, other black writers superior to him criticized his work. He was blamed for portraying an unpleasant image of black life to his audience. When Langston’s poem “Fine Clothes to the Jew” was published, the white people were very accepting of his work. However, his fellow African Americans were not appreciative of the content of the poem. Hughes responded to the harsh criticism by stating “I sympathized deeply with those critics and those intellectuals [….] I personally knew very few people anywhere who were wholly beautiful and wholly good.” He was noted as the most abused poet in America at the time. His works were constantly battered in efforts to change his opinion, but he refused to relinquish under the pressure. His strong will may be the reason he became so famous for his writings.
WORKS CITED
"Overview of (James) Langston Hughes." DISCovering Authors. Detroit: Gale, 2003. Student Resources in Context. Web. 2 Apr. 2012.
"I, Too" The literary period known as the Harlem Renaissance produced a substantial amount of African American poets. This cultural movement came alive in the 1920s and 1930s. When the Harlem Renaissance first came about, it was widely known as the “New Negro Movement.” This was centered in Harlem, New York, but the Harlem Renaissance influenced many French-speaking black poets from African and Caribbean colonies. Although this era spanned from the 20s-30s, the idea still remains today. One prominent poet of the era was Lanston Hughes, a creative African American from Harlem, New York. His poem “I, too” was a popular work that stood out to many people, both white, and black. This poem is told in the present tense and in first person. The speaker of this poem is Langston Hughes, a black man working as a slave for a white family. Hughes serves as a representative for all black Americans during this historical era. When reading this poem, the audience feels a sense of the whole community speaking, rather than only one poet. The speaker shows a strong sense of strength throughout the poem. He does not show any signs of weakness. His audience is white, racist men and women of the era. He wants them to become aware that he is a normal human being, the only difference is the color of his skim. “Tomorrow, I'll be at the table When company comes. Nobody'll dare say to me, "Eat in the kitchen," is an example of the speaker’s attitude towards the discrimination.He wants the audience to be aware of his affirmativeness. Hughes’ argument was that blacks and whites should be treated equally, no matter what the circumstance is. The tone of this essay is indignant. Hughes is angered, but at the same acknowledges the fact that he is in a very unjust situation. There is a shift in the tone about half way through the poem. Hughes switches from an angered outlook, to a more poised and positive tone. Within the poem, Hughes utilizes the senses to capture his audience’s attention in order to relate to his reader. A noticeable sense is that of sight. One instantly pictures the color of his skin when he refers to himself as “the darker brother.” Visualizing Hughes eating in the kitchen also touches on the imagery. The sense of hearing also plays a major role in the poem. He quotes the white people when they order him to “eat in the kitchen.” The audience can almost hear a strict voice yelling the command. The imagery throughout the poem suggests that he was strongly discriminated against within the white household. These images do not make the reader feel sympathetic for Hughes, but more supportive of his toughness. Thee is a substantial amount of figurative language “I, too.” Metaphors are prominent. When he says, “I, too, am America,” he is saying that he is America. Hughes also implements assonance when he states, “When company comes.” The “com” sound is repeated. There is some repetition in the poem as well. He says, “Eat in the kitchen” and “When company comes” twice throughout the work. “I, too” does not have a certain rhyme scheme. This is a free verse poem containing elements of repetition to give it form. The purpose of repeating lines throughout the poem is to leave an imprint on the audience. The sound elements reinforce the meaning of the poem. Hughes wanted to make a lasting impression on his reader, which he accomplished through repetition. The most prevalent theme of “I, too” is shown clearly through the poem’s setting: a white household with a black servant, Langston Hughes, looking for freedom. He refuses to buckle under the harsh pressures of discrimination and proceeds to preach about his attempt for freedom. The purpose of this poem is to show a large audience of both whites and blacks that black people should not be treated with any less respect than white people. Hughes is proving to the world that he will not allow his skin color effect his goals. The Harlem Renaissance was an era that emerged and settled around black poets striving for freedom. In Langston Hughes’ poem “I, too,” he speaks to the world about his life as a black man working as a slave in a white household. This work of poetry is still prominent in literature today and has made an everlasting impact on the well-known Harlem Renaissance era.
The Harlem Renaissance was an African-American-based cultural movement that sprung in the 1920’s in Harlem, New York. This city came to be the most populous African-American community in the nation at the time because of the many African-Americans transferring from the South to the North in hopes of finding work. It was at this point in American history that black literature and culture emerged as a major source of pride for African-Americans. Most importantly, however, was the significant contribution made by authors, scholars, and artists to the African-American community. They encouraged the spread of black culture that set the scene for African-Americans and, as a result, changed their role in American history forever.
A Poem from the Literary Period:
“I, Too” by Langston Hughes
I, too, sing America.
I am the darker brother.
They send me to eat in the kitchen
When company comes,
But I laugh,
And eat well,
And grow strong.
Tomorrow,
I'll be at the table
When company comes.
Nobody'll dare
Say to me,
"Eat in the kitchen,"
Then.
Besides,
They'll see how beautiful I am
And be ashamed--
I, too, am America.
A Summary of a Critical Article about the Poem:
In his poem, “I, Too,” Langston Hughes briefly depicts the nature of the Harlem Renaissance with plain diction and free verse rhyme scheme. His point of view in the poem is rooted in the suffering of lower-class African Americans prior to his days as an author. Hughes presents the issues associated with racism and discrimination to make his argument. He does this by employing a morose tone for the majority of the poem and then adds a twist near the end. He contrasts the different views of blacks and whites to make his point clear: blacks are also part of America. By combining an array of powerful emotions in his poem, Hughes makes a striking argument no matter the race of the reader. This poem brings a sense of assurance to African Americans that they are no different from persons of any other race. Blacks are every bit American as whites. During a time in which Americans claimed pride for their country, Langston Hughes made it evident that not one race had majority over another in being truly American.
http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CEJ2164000705&v=2.1&u=fl_breva&it=r&p=GPS&sw=w Evaluation of “I, Too”
The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural movement in the 1920’s in which African Americans came together to celebrate their heritage as well as a literary period in which black literature emerged as a prominent source of entertainment. This movement sprung in the city ofHarlem,New Yorkwhen scores of African Americans made their way to the North from the southern states to seek new opportunities after World War I. It was during this time that Langston Hughes emerged as one of the most famous poets, if not the most famous poet, of the Harlem Renaissance. He wrote a number of poems and other works that are widely known today, including “I, Too.” This poem of his demonstrates just exactly the Negro spirit that was rampant inHarlemin the early twentieth century.
The speaker of the poem is an African American man who occupies the role of a white family’s slave. His point of view is one of pride and confidence in his race. He claims that he too, will singAmerica (1068.1). By this, he means that one day, he will live as a proud American should (when whites and blacks are treated equally and segregation, discrimination, and racism are a thing of the past). Despite his race, he neither will face judgment nor be looked down upon for his true identity. He will bear eating in the kitchen for the present moment, but when the time comes, he’ll be at the table when company comes, and nobody will say to him “eat in the kitchen” (1068.9-13). At the sight of him, they will seem him as a real human being “and be ashamed” (1068.17) that he too is American (1068.18). The speaker’s audience is whites who discriminate against blacks since his argument is directed at taking a stand against segregation. As a result, the speaker’s topic of anti-segregation brings forth the argument that blacks have every right as whites to “eat in the kitchen” for they are dignified human beings who deserve no less than whites do.
The dominant tone of the poem is indignant. With this sense of provocation by injustice, the speaker of the poem strengthens his argument. Shifts in the tone of the poem also produce a useful effect. As the speaker shifts from a more indignant tone in the first two stanzas, he moves to a bolder, confident tone in the last three stanzas. The shift in the poem reveal that once weak, the speaker has gained strength and confidence to fight back for his rights as an American.
The sense of sight is the most prominent of the senses in this poem. The speaker isolates himself as the “darker brother” (1068.2) in comparison to the other characters but later defends his position as an African American slave when he says “They’ll see how beautiful I am” (1068.16). The sense of smell also contributes to the image of the poem in that the speaker’s laughing reveals how content he is with the present for he knows that better things lie in the future. The use of these images suggests that the speaker is eager about the future and has a prospective attitude toward it. These images provoke the idea that differences between whites and blacks will be settled and that racism/discrimination will come to an end in that the speaker is prepared for the time when blacks will have the same rights as whites (he himself will contribute to this effort by standing up for himself).
The speaker of the poem employs figurative language as a means of enhancing the overall effect of the poem. He mentions that he is the “darker brother” (1068.2) not only in the sense that he is black, but that he is looked down upon by others. He also adds that he sings America (1068.1) as well as he is America (1068.18) in that he may be one person, but without him, America would cease to exist as it does. Other literary devices that give meaning to the poem include polysyndeton and asyndeton. The speaker’s consistent use of conjunctions at the beginning of the poem serve to create a sense of longevity, while his lack of conjunctions near the end of the poem speed up the poem, therefore allowing for more points to be made within a shorter time.
The poem does not consist of a certain rhyme scheme or specific sound elements, but rather a free verse pattern consistent with repetition. The speaker repeatedly mentions the phrases “when company comes” (1068.4;10) and “eat in the kitchen” (1068.3;13) because each time he uses one of these phrases, the motive behind it is different (the speaker’s tone shifts). This helps to reinforce the meaning of the poem in that the first time the speaker mentions each of the phrases, he is being ordered what to do, yet the second time, he is taking control of his own actions.
The theme of the poem is that one cannot expect the world to change if he or she makes not attempt to instigate that change. In “I, Too,” the speaker is not willing to be mistreated the way that he is so he decides to take a stand against discrimination. The purpose of the poem is to inspire courage in those who are not satisfied with their lives and to defend what is right and just. The poem helps to exemplify the theme in that the speaker wants to end discrimination against blacks so he defends his own right to eat at the table with his white masters and their company.
Because of its profuse insight into black culture and the issues revolving around segregation, Langston Hughes’s “I, Too” serves as a fine example of the Harlem Renaissance and its significance in the history of literature.
Works Cited
“Commentary on I Too.” World War I and the Jazz Age. Woodbridge, CT: Primary Source Media, 1999. American Journey. Student Resources in Context. Web. 2 Apr. 2012.
“Historical Context: ‘Blood-Burning Moon’.” EXPLORING Short Stories. Detroit: Gale, 2003. Student Resources in Context. Web. 2 Apr. 2012.
Meyer, Michael. The Bedford Introduction to Literature: Reading • Thinking • Writing. 7th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005. Print.
Beat Poetry
Beat Poetry arose in the years and decades post-World War Two, originating in the same time period as what has come to be termed as "post-modernism" began to become a noticeable movement in literature.
Beat poetry is closely related to stream of consciousness writing and is characterized by a lack of adherence to standard formulas and patterns(primarily grammar and syntax).
Poem
One of the most acclaimed and notorious beat poet's of the 20th Century was Allen Ginsberg. One of his most critically acclaimed works was Howl (1956). Here is one of a more recent type of Beat Poem:
Homework
by Allen Ginsberg
If I were doing my Laundry I'd wash my dirty Iran
I'd throw in my United States, and pour on the Ivory Soap,
scrub up Africa, put all the birds and elephants back in
the jungle,
I'd wash the Amazon river and clean the oily Carib & Gulf of Mexico,
Rub that smog off the North Pole, wipe up all the pipelines in Alaska,
Rub a dub dub for Rocky Flats and Los Alamos, Flush that sparkly
Cesium out of Love Canal
Rinse down the Acid Rain over the Parthenon & Sphinx, Drain the Sludge
out of the Mediterranean basin & make it azure again,
Put some blueing back into the sky over the Rhine, bleach the little
Clouds so snow return white as snow,
Cleanse the Hudson Thames & Neckar, Drain the Suds out of Lake Erie
Then I'd throw big Asia in one giant Load & wash out the blood &
Agent Orange,
Dump the whole mess of Russia and China in the wringer, squeeze out
the tattletail Gray of U.S. Central American police state,
& put the planet in the drier & let it sit 20 minutes or an
This Article primarily serves as a introduction to the beat generation. This was the article that introduced them to the world, and how they became so free-spirited and passionate about the world. Also it describes the many faces of the generation, not just a median age group, but various types of people all around the world.
"Beat Poetry Thread [Archive] - Music & Musician Forums." Sputnikmusic. Web. 24 Mar. 2012. Ginsberg, Allen. "Homework." PoemHunter.com. Web. 24 Mar. 2012. Holmes, John C. "This Is The Beat Generation." Literary Kicks. Oct. 2011. Web. 31 Mar. 2012. "The Writer's Almanac with Garrison Keillor." Homework by Allen Ginsberg. 3 June 2003. Web. 31 Mar. 2012.
Modern Era: Symbolists
By: Kate Healy
Explanation of the Period-
The Symbolist movement of modern literature started with French poets around the end of the 19th century and spread across Europe and the United States throughout the twentieth century. The symbolist poets subtly used very symbolic language to express their personal emotional experience. Symbolism is used to suggest more then the literal meaning of a word. The poems' structures were built on grand, illogical, inituative associations. The poets used symbols as monikers for the real world problems.
Critical Article Summary-
Robert Frost was born in 1874 in San Francisco. His family moved East when he was around eleven years old and started writing and reading poetry in high school. In 1892 Frost began attending Dartmouth College and then later attended Harvard. Frost was employed in many different occupations after he was no longer attending college. He married Elinor Miriam White in the year 1895. Elinor was one of Frost's major inspirations for his poetry. The two of them moved to England in 1912 where he published his first works. Robert and Elinor moved back to America in 1915 and Frost became the most widely celebrated poet in America by the 1920s.
Poem-
Robert Frost (1874–1963). Mountain Interval. 1920. The Road Not Taken
TWO roads diverged in a yellow wood,
And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveler, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth; 5 Then took the other, as just as fair,
And having perhaps the better claim,
Because it was grassy and wanted wear;
Though as for that the passing there
Had worn them really about the same, 10 And both that morning equally lay
In leaves no step had trodden black.
Oh, I kept the first for another day!
Yet knowing how way leads on to way,
I doubted if I should ever come back. 15 I shall be telling this with a sigh
Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference. 20 "A Brief Guide to the Symbolists." Poets.org. Poets.org From the Academy for the American Poets. Web. 2 Apr. 2012.
"The Road Not Taken." Bartleby.com. Bartleby. Web. 2 Apr. 2012.
Lost Generation
World War I
The lost generation was a term coined in the aftermath of World War I to describe a group of literary poets who were demoralized and withdrawn from the world as a result of the grueling hardships of war. Major technological advances in military techniques resulted in more efficient killing methods, mustard gas and trench warfare being two of the most prominent. The prolonged exposure to war and its unfortunate consequences warped the minds of sound men and exposed them to horrors unknown to those concealed from the actual fighting. After the men returned home, many were unable to return to normal jobs, unable to adapt to society's expectations, and often withdrew from the world. These men were termed the "lost generation."Article About World War I Poetry
World War I produced a vast response in the poetic world, particularly amoung fellow soldiers on the battlefield. Racked with the monotonous gore of typical warfare, stereotypical soldiers took to releasing pent up exasperation, desperation, and depression through poems in an attempt to describe their conflicted emotions and experiences. The events and fighting tactics of World War I make it one of the most violent clashes in the modern world. Mustard gas, trench warfare, and other barbaric techniques scarred the fighters for lifetimes. These poets had various approaches to war in their poems. While some preferred abstract ideas and descriptions, others relived events in vivid detail. Some poems focused on the religious aspect and others pointedly remarked on political and social conditions leading up to and during the war. However, one common occurrence arises between all war poetry, especially those written in the 1900s: the timeworn battle between two conflicting perspectives, is war necessary or not?Poem
In Flanders Fields
by: Lieutenant Colonel John McCrae, MDIn Flanders Fields the poppies blow
Between the crosses row on row,
That mark our place; and in the sky
The larks, still bravely singing, fly
Scarce heard amid the guns below.
We are the Dead. Short days ago
We lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow,
Loved and were loved, and now we lie
In Flanders fields.
Take up our quarrel with the foe:
To you from failing hands we throw
The torch; be yours to hold it high.
If ye break faith with us who die
We shall not sleep, though poppies grow
In Flanders fields.
Paper:
Bibliography
"20th Century - War Poetry." LitFinder Contemporary Collection. Detroit: Gale, 2008. LitFinder. Web. 2 Apr. 2012.Duffy, Michael. "Firstworldwar.com." First World War.com. 22 Aug. 2009. Web. 02 Apr. 2012. <http://www.firstworldwar.com/origins/causes.htm>.
"In Flanders Field, Lieutenant Colonel John McCrae." Arlington National Cemetery Website Title Page. 9 Nov. 2009. Web. 02 Apr. 2012. http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/flanders.htm.
Lost Generation
Lost generation is the term is used for the period from the end of World War I to the beginning of the Great Depression, though in the United States it is used for the generation of young people who came of age during and shortly after World War I, alternatively known as the World War I generation. “Perhaps the best way to understand The Lost Generation is to consider it neither as a mere "name" nor as a mere thing for which a name "stands," but rather as a minor "discursive object.”” (Dolan) It “was comprised mostly of American writers and artists living abroad, who established their reputations in the period between 1920 and 1930.” (“Writers”) And the famous poets from this era are “Hart Crane”, “e. e. cummings”, “H.D.”, “Archibald MacLeish”, and “Ezra Pound”. (“Writers”)
Work Cited:
Dolan, Marc. "'The Lost Generation' and 'Modern Life': Myth and Discourse for an American 1920s." Modern Lives: A Cultural Re-Reading of "The Lost Generation,". West Lafayette, Ind.: Purdue University Press, 1996. 9-47. Rpt. in Twentieth-Century Literary Criticism. Ed. Thomas J. Schoenberg and Lawrence J. Trudeau. Vol. 178. Detroit: Gale, 2006. Literature Resource Center. Web. 2 Apr. 2012.
"Writers of the Lost Generation." Twentieth-Century Literary Criticism. Ed. Thomas J. Schoenberg and Lawrence J. Trudeau. Vol. 178. Detroit: Gale, 2006. Literature Resource Center. Web. 2 Apr. 2012.
Poem:
r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r
by E. E. Cummings
r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r
who
a)s w(e loo)k
upnowgath
PPEGORHRASS
eringint(o-
aThe):l
eA
!p:
S a
(r
rIvInG .gRrEaPsPhOs)
to
rea(be)rran(com)gi(e)ngly
,grasshopper;
Poetry Citation:
Cummings, E.E."R-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r." Poets.org. Academy of American Poets. Web. 2 Apr. 2012.
Critical Article about E.E. Cummings
Title: E. E. Cummings: Overview
Author: Paul Christensen
Edward Estlin Cummings, also known as e.e. cummings, is “a major poet of the modern period” (Christensen), who grew up in a comfortable, liberal household in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The distinguished psychologist and writer William James, was his neighbor. Cummings went to Harvard and he “wrote and published poems in the undergraduate reviews, but most of them were conventional and uninspired” (Christensen) He submitted his book of poems to Boni, but was refused. The first book contained 152 poems ranging “from a long, rambling epithalamion and other derivative exercises to short, pithy works of explosive energy and significant innovation.” (Christensen) Even Cummings's later books do not have the vigor of this first work. Among the poems in the collection are "All in green went my love riding," "In Just," "O sweet spontaneous," and "Buffalo Bill's / defunct." He attacked the conventional lyric, innovated in other forms and media. And he made a huge success on shape poem and the punctuations.
Work Cited:
Christensen, Paul. "E. E. Cummings: Overview." Reference Guide to American Literature. Ed. Jim Kamp. 3rd ed. Detroit: St. James Press, 1994. Literature Resource Center. Web. 2 Apr. 2012.http://go.galegroup.com.portal.lib.fit.edu/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA92865918&v=2.1&u=melb26933&it=r&p=LitRC&sw=w
(I used Florida Institution of Technology’s account to get on Literature Resource Center database.)
Harlem Renaissance
Harlem Renaissance (1920s-1930s)
Brinley Donovan
Description of the time period:The literary period known as the Harlem Renaissance produced a substantial amount of African American poets. This cultural movement came alive in the 1920s and 1930s. When the Harlem Renaissance first came about, it was widely known as the “New Negro Movement.” This was centered in Harlem, New York, but the Harlem Renaissance influenced many French-speaking black poets from African and Caribbean colonies. Although this era spanned from the 20s-30s, the idea still remains today.
WORKS CITED
"Harlem Renaissance." LEVITY. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Apr. 2012. <http://www.levity.com/corduroy/harlem.htm>.
"PAL: Harlem Renaissance: A Brief Introduction." California State University Stanislaus | Home. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Apr. 2012. <http://www.csustan.edu/english/reuben/pal/chap9/9intro.html>.
I, too
Langston Hughes
I, too, sing America.
I am the darker brother.
They send me to eat in the kitchen
When company comes,
But I laugh,
And eat well,
And grow strong.
Tomorrow,
I’ll be at the table
When company comes.
Nobody’ll dare
Say to me,
“Eat in the kitchen,”
Then.
Besides,
They’ll see how beautiful I am
And be ashamed—
I, too, am America.
WORKS CITED
"I, Too by Langston Hughes." PoemHunter.Com - Thousands of poems and poets. Poetry Search Engine. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Apr. 2012. <http://www.poemhunter.com/poem/i-too/>.
Summary of Critical Article on Poet
Langston Hughes is a well-recognized poet from the Harlem Renaissance era. Since he began writing poems as a rather young man, other black writers superior to him criticized his work. He was blamed for portraying an unpleasant image of black life to his audience. When Langston’s poem “Fine Clothes to the Jew” was published, the white people were very accepting of his work. However, his fellow African Americans were not appreciative of the content of the poem. Hughes responded to the harsh criticism by stating “I sympathized deeply with those critics and those intellectuals [….] I personally knew very few people anywhere who were wholly beautiful and wholly good.” He was noted as the most abused poet in America at the time. His works were constantly battered in efforts to change his opinion, but he refused to relinquish under the pressure. His strong will may be the reason he became so famous for his writings.
WORKS CITED
"Overview of (James) Langston Hughes." DISCovering Authors. Detroit: Gale, 2003. Student Resources in Context. Web. 2 Apr. 2012.
"I, Too"
The literary period known as the Harlem Renaissance produced a substantial amount of African American poets. This cultural movement came alive in the 1920s and 1930s. When the Harlem Renaissance first came about, it was widely known as the “New Negro Movement.” This was centered in Harlem, New York, but the Harlem Renaissance influenced many French-speaking black poets from African and Caribbean colonies. Although this era spanned from the 20s-30s, the idea still remains today. One prominent poet of the era was Lanston Hughes, a creative African American from Harlem, New York. His poem “I, too” was a popular work that stood out to many people, both white, and black.
This poem is told in the present tense and in first person. The speaker of this
poem is Langston Hughes, a black man working as a slave for a white family. Hughes serves as a representative for all black Americans during this historical era. When reading this poem, the audience feels a sense of the whole community speaking, rather than only one poet. The speaker shows a strong sense of strength throughout the poem. He does not show any signs of weakness. His audience is white, racist men and women of the era. He wants them to become aware that he is a normal human being, the only difference is the color of his skim. “Tomorrow, I'll be at the table When company comes. Nobody'll dare say to me, "Eat in the kitchen," is an example of the speaker’s attitude towards the discrimination.He wants the audience to be aware of his affirmativeness. Hughes’ argument was that blacks and whites should be treated equally, no matter what the circumstance is.
The tone of this essay is indignant. Hughes is angered, but at the same acknowledges the fact that he is in a very unjust situation. There is a shift in the tone about half way through the poem. Hughes switches from an angered outlook, to a more poised and positive tone.
Within the poem, Hughes utilizes the senses to capture his audience’s attention in order to relate to his reader. A noticeable sense is that of sight. One instantly pictures the color of his skin when he refers to himself as “the darker brother.” Visualizing Hughes eating in the kitchen also touches on the imagery. The sense of hearing also plays a major role in the poem. He quotes the white people when they order him to “eat in the kitchen.” The audience can almost hear a strict voice yelling the command. The imagery throughout the poem suggests that he was strongly discriminated against within the white household. These images do not make the reader feel sympathetic for Hughes, but more supportive of his toughness.
Thee is a substantial amount of figurative language “I, too.” Metaphors are prominent. When he says, “I, too, am America,” he is saying that he is America. Hughes also implements assonance when he states, “When company comes.” The “com” sound is repeated. There is some repetition in the poem as well. He says, “Eat in the kitchen” and “When company comes” twice throughout the work.
“I, too” does not have a certain rhyme scheme. This is a free verse poem containing elements of repetition to give it form. The purpose of repeating lines throughout the poem is to leave an imprint on the audience. The sound elements reinforce the meaning of the poem. Hughes wanted to make a lasting impression on his reader, which he accomplished through repetition.
The most prevalent theme of “I, too” is shown clearly through the poem’s setting: a white household with a black servant, Langston Hughes, looking for freedom. He refuses to buckle under the harsh pressures of discrimination and proceeds to preach about his attempt for freedom. The purpose of this poem is to show a large audience of both whites and blacks that black people should not be treated with any less respect than white people. Hughes is proving to the world that he will not allow his skin color effect his goals.
The Harlem Renaissance was an era that emerged and settled around black poets striving for freedom. In Langston Hughes’ poem “I, too,” he speaks to the world about his life as a black man working as a slave in a white household. This work of poetry is still prominent in literature today and has made an everlasting impact on the well-known Harlem Renaissance era.
Works Cited
"I, Too." By Langston Hughes : The Poetry Foundation. Web. 22 Apr. 2012. <http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/177020>.
"Poetry Analysis: Langston Hughes's "I,Too"" Get Paid to Write Articles. Web. 22 Apr. 2012. <http://expertscolumn.com/content/poetry-analysis-langston-hughess-itoo>.
A Description of the Literary Period:
The Harlem Renaissance was an African-American-based cultural movement that sprung in the 1920’s in Harlem, New York. This city came to be the most populous African-American community in the nation at the time because of the many African-Americans transferring from the South to the North in hopes of finding work. It was at this point in American history that black literature and culture emerged as a major source of pride for African-Americans. Most importantly, however, was the significant contribution made by authors, scholars, and artists to the African-American community. They encouraged the spread of black culture that set the scene for African-Americans and, as a result, changed their role in American history forever.
A Poem from the Literary Period:
“I, Too” by Langston Hughes
I, too, sing America.
I am the darker brother.
They send me to eat in the kitchen
When company comes,
But I laugh,
And eat well,
And grow strong.
Tomorrow,
I'll be at the table
When company comes.
Nobody'll dare
Say to me,
"Eat in the kitchen,"
Then.
Besides,
They'll see how beautiful I am
And be ashamed--
I, too, am America.
A Summary of a Critical Article about the Poem:
In his poem, “I, Too,” Langston Hughes briefly depicts the nature of the Harlem Renaissance with plain diction and free verse rhyme scheme. His point of view in the poem is rooted in the suffering of lower-class African Americans prior to his days as an author. Hughes presents the issues associated with racism and discrimination to make his argument. He does this by employing a morose tone for the majority of the poem and then adds a twist near the end. He contrasts the different views of blacks and whites to make his point clear: blacks are also part of America. By combining an array of powerful emotions in his poem, Hughes makes a striking argument no matter the race of the reader. This poem brings a sense of assurance to African Americans that they are no different from persons of any other race. Blacks are every bit American as whites. During a time in which Americans claimed pride for their country, Langston Hughes made it evident that not one race had majority over another in being truly American.http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CEJ2164000705&v=2.1&u=fl_breva&it=r&p=GPS&sw=w
Evaluation of “I, Too”
The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural movement in the 1920’s in which African Americans came together to celebrate their heritage as well as a literary period in which black literature emerged as a prominent source of entertainment. This movement sprung in the city ofHarlem,New Yorkwhen scores of African Americans made their way to the North from the southern states to seek new opportunities after World War I. It was during this time that Langston Hughes emerged as one of the most famous poets, if not the most famous poet, of the Harlem Renaissance. He wrote a number of poems and other works that are widely known today, including “I, Too.” This poem of his demonstrates just exactly the Negro spirit that was rampant inHarlemin the early twentieth century.
The speaker of the poem is an African American man who occupies the role of a white family’s slave. His point of view is one of pride and confidence in his race. He claims that he too, will singAmerica (1068.1). By this, he means that one day, he will live as a proud American should (when whites and blacks are treated equally and segregation, discrimination, and racism are a thing of the past). Despite his race, he neither will face judgment nor be looked down upon for his true identity. He will bear eating in the kitchen for the present moment, but when the time comes, he’ll be at the table when company comes, and nobody will say to him “eat in the kitchen” (1068.9-13). At the sight of him, they will seem him as a real human being “and be ashamed” (1068.17) that he too is American (1068.18). The speaker’s audience is whites who discriminate against blacks since his argument is directed at taking a stand against segregation. As a result, the speaker’s topic of anti-segregation brings forth the argument that blacks have every right as whites to “eat in the kitchen” for they are dignified human beings who deserve no less than whites do.
The dominant tone of the poem is indignant. With this sense of provocation by injustice, the speaker of the poem strengthens his argument. Shifts in the tone of the poem also produce a useful effect. As the speaker shifts from a more indignant tone in the first two stanzas, he moves to a bolder, confident tone in the last three stanzas. The shift in the poem reveal that once weak, the speaker has gained strength and confidence to fight back for his rights as an American.
The sense of sight is the most prominent of the senses in this poem. The speaker isolates himself as the “darker brother” (1068.2) in comparison to the other characters but later defends his position as an African American slave when he says “They’ll see how beautiful I am” (1068.16). The sense of smell also contributes to the image of the poem in that the speaker’s laughing reveals how content he is with the present for he knows that better things lie in the future. The use of these images suggests that the speaker is eager about the future and has a prospective attitude toward it. These images provoke the idea that differences between whites and blacks will be settled and that racism/discrimination will come to an end in that the speaker is prepared for the time when blacks will have the same rights as whites (he himself will contribute to this effort by standing up for himself).
The speaker of the poem employs figurative language as a means of enhancing the overall effect of the poem. He mentions that he is the “darker brother” (1068.2) not only in the sense that he is black, but that he is looked down upon by others. He also adds that he sings America (1068.1) as well as he is America (1068.18) in that he may be one person, but without him, America would cease to exist as it does. Other literary devices that give meaning to the poem include polysyndeton and asyndeton. The speaker’s consistent use of conjunctions at the beginning of the poem serve to create a sense of longevity, while his lack of conjunctions near the end of the poem speed up the poem, therefore allowing for more points to be made within a shorter time.
The poem does not consist of a certain rhyme scheme or specific sound elements, but rather a free verse pattern consistent with repetition. The speaker repeatedly mentions the phrases “when company comes” (1068.4;10) and “eat in the kitchen” (1068.3;13) because each time he uses one of these phrases, the motive behind it is different (the speaker’s tone shifts). This helps to reinforce the meaning of the poem in that the first time the speaker mentions each of the phrases, he is being ordered what to do, yet the second time, he is taking control of his own actions.
The theme of the poem is that one cannot expect the world to change if he or she makes not attempt to instigate that change. In “I, Too,” the speaker is not willing to be mistreated the way that he is so he decides to take a stand against discrimination. The purpose of the poem is to inspire courage in those who are not satisfied with their lives and to defend what is right and just. The poem helps to exemplify the theme in that the speaker wants to end discrimination against blacks so he defends his own right to eat at the table with his white masters and their company.
Because of its profuse insight into black culture and the issues revolving around segregation, Langston Hughes’s “I, Too” serves as a fine example of the Harlem Renaissance and its significance in the history of literature.Works Cited
“Commentary on I Too.” World War I and the Jazz Age. Woodbridge, CT: Primary Source Media, 1999. American Journey. Student Resources in Context. Web. 2 Apr. 2012.
“Historical Context: ‘Blood-Burning Moon’.” EXPLORING Short Stories. Detroit: Gale, 2003. Student Resources in Context. Web. 2 Apr. 2012.
Meyer, Michael. The Bedford Introduction to Literature: Reading • Thinking • Writing. 7th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005. Print.
Beat Poetry
Poem
One of the most acclaimed and notorious beat poet's of the 20th Century was Allen Ginsberg. One of his most critically acclaimed works was Howl (1956).
Here is one of a more recent type of Beat Poem:
Homework
by Allen Ginsberg
If I were doing my Laundry I'd wash my dirty Iran
I'd throw in my United States, and pour on the Ivory Soap,
scrub up Africa, put all the birds and elephants back in
the jungle,
I'd wash the Amazon river and clean the oily Carib & Gulf of Mexico,
Rub that smog off the North Pole, wipe up all the pipelines in Alaska,
Rub a dub dub for Rocky Flats and Los Alamos, Flush that sparkly
Cesium out of Love Canal
Rinse down the Acid Rain over the Parthenon & Sphinx, Drain the Sludge
out of the Mediterranean basin & make it azure again,
Put some blueing back into the sky over the Rhine, bleach the little
Clouds so snow return white as snow,
Cleanse the Hudson Thames & Neckar, Drain the Suds out of Lake Erie
Then I'd throw big Asia in one giant Load & wash out the blood &
Agent Orange,
Dump the whole mess of Russia and China in the wringer, squeeze out
the tattletail Gray of U.S. Central American police state,
& put the planet in the drier & let it sit 20 minutes or an
Aeon till it came out clean
Article about Beat Poetry
Click here for ArticleThis Article primarily serves as a introduction to the beat generation. This was the article that introduced them to the world, and how they became so free-spirited and passionate about the world. Also it describes the many faces of the generation, not just a median age group, but various types of people all around the world.
Paper
Bibliography
"Beat Poetry Thread [Archive] - Music & Musician Forums." Sputnikmusic. Web. 24 Mar. 2012.
Ginsberg, Allen. "Homework." PoemHunter.com. Web. 24 Mar. 2012.
Holmes, John C. "This Is The Beat Generation." Literary Kicks. Oct. 2011. Web. 31 Mar. 2012.
"The Writer's Almanac with Garrison Keillor." Homework by Allen Ginsberg. 3 June 2003. Web. 31 Mar. 2012.
Modern Era: Symbolists
By: Kate HealyExplanation of the Period-
The Symbolist movement of modern literature started with French poets around the end of the 19th century and spread across Europe and the United States throughout the twentieth century. The symbolist poets subtly used very symbolic language to express their personal emotional experience. Symbolism is used to suggest more then the literal meaning of a word.The poems' structures were built on grand, illogical, inituative associations. The poets used symbols as monikers for the real world problems.
Critical Article Summary-
Robert Frost was born in 1874 in San Francisco. His family moved East when he was around eleven years old and started writing and reading poetry in high school. In 1892 Frost began attending Dartmouth College and then later attended Harvard. Frost was employed in many different occupations after he was no longer attending college. He married Elinor Miriam White in the year 1895. Elinor was one of Frost's major inspirations for his poetry. The two of them moved to England in 1912 where he published his first works. Robert and Elinor moved back to America in 1915 and Frost became the most widely celebrated poet in America by the 1920s.
Poem-
Robert Frost (1874–1963). Mountain Interval. 1920.
The Road Not Taken
TWO roads diverged in a yellow wood,
And sorry I could not travel both
And be one traveler, long I stood
And looked down one as far as I could
To where it bent in the undergrowth;
5
Then took the other, as just as fair,
And having perhaps the better claim,
Because it was grassy and wanted wear;
Though as for that the passing there
Had worn them really about the same,
10
And both that morning equally lay
In leaves no step had trodden black.
Oh, I kept the first for another day!
Yet knowing how way leads on to way,
I doubted if I should ever come back.
15
I shall be telling this with a sigh
Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.
20
"A Brief Guide to the Symbolists." Poets.org. Poets.org From the Academy for the American Poets. Web. 2 Apr. 2012.
"The Road Not Taken." Bartleby.com. Bartleby. Web. 2 Apr. 2012.
"Robert Frost- Poets.org - Poetry, Poems, Bios & More." Poets.org. Web. 02 Apr. 2012.
"Symbolist Movement (literary and Artistic Movement)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 02 Apr. 2012.